SSOP SANITATION STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 28 Words: 8435 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? SANITATION STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES CHAPTER IV SANITATION STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES (SSOP) 4.1. Introduction SSOP (Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures) should be specific to each food/fisheries plant. SSOP describe the plants sanitary handling of raw material and hygiene of the processing area and it environment. SSOP contain a description of the procedures that an establishment will follow to address the elements of pre-operational and operational sanitation relating to the prevention of direct product contamination. Fisheries plants are required to develop, maintain, and adhere to written SSOP. This requirement was established because the government concluded that SSOP were necessary. The objective of SSOP is to minimize contamination on product or adulteration. SSOP cover daily pre-operational and operational sanitation procedures. Establishments must identify the officials to monitor daily sanitation activities, evaluate whether the SSOP are effective, and take proper corrective action when its needed. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "SSOP SANITATION STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES" essay for you Create order 4.2. Definition SSOP is an activity that related to cleanlines and health effort during procesing so products have good quality and be safe for consumption. Based on Indonesian Ministry of Agriculture regulation No.41/Kpts/IK.210/2/98 about PMMT, the SSOP objective is prevent pathogen bacteria growth which destroy product that danger to human. According to Darwanto and Murniyati (2003), SSOP is one of prerequisite programs that is used for the environment sanitation surveillance, so the plant will produce safe product. The environment on plant comprises rooms, equipments, workers, water etc. Every product processing has different SSOP although in one factory. On SSOP document, it explains the procedures of implementation and monitoring of SSOP on factory. 4.3. SSOP Scope SSOP sections are based on eighth FDA key sanitation conditions. Those sections as follows: 1. Ice and water safety, used on fish processing. Water, used on fish processing, get from safe sources and it manage with good system. 2. Condition and cleanlines of equipments surface that are directly contact to product have to clean and sanitize, including gloves, work dress etc 3. Cross contamination control. 4. Hand washing (hand sink), sanitizer and toilet. Toilets have to complete with door and clean at the end of processing. Hand sink should complete with wter, soap and towel. 5. Product protection from packaging materials. 6. Labeling, storing and material using based on instruction. Sanitizer, oil, and pesticide and toxic chemical have to complete with label and store on special room. 7. Worker health control. When the workers work on factory, they have to clean and healthy. 8. Pest controlling on factory environment using chemical substances, environment should be clean from pest. 4.4. SSOP Principles 4.4.1. Water safety The water supply is one of the most factors when making products which are safe to eat and which meet the required microbiological standards. Water is the most important component on food processing. In food industries, water has function as part of product composition, cleaning the products, equipments and others, raw material of ice and glazing, and drinking (Winarno and Surono, 2002). Before using on food processing, the water have to free from bacteria, suspended material, chemical pollutants, bacteria, viruses, etc. If water contains many bacteria, chlorine can remove and kill the bacteria, it makes the water free from microorganism. Water that use on fish processing should have a good quality. It is free from pathogenic bacteria, dangerous substances, colorless, odorless, and transparent (Jenie, 1997). Based on Directorate of Food and Drinking Control (1996), the water requirements that use on food processing and directly contacting with food have to base on pure water requirement standard (Indonesian Health minister regulation No. 416/MenKes/Per/IX/1990 about water quality requirements and its controlling. In addition, criteria from WHO 1984, EEC 1980, and Gould 1994 can be used by the fish processor on their food processing. There are two sources of water supply potable water and non-potable water. Both of them can be used on food processing, but the fish processor have to meet the water quality standard from health minister regulation, WHO, EEC and other organizations (Huss,1994). 1) Potable water a) Potable water should be provided in all places of employment such as drinking, cooking, washing of the person, processing, washing of foods, washing of cooking or eating utensils, washing of food preparation or processing premises, washing equipments on food processing, and personal service room. Table 4.1. Microbiological criteria (Guidelines) for drinking water quality Organism in 100 ml 1) Guideline value Remarks Piped water supplies Treated water entering the distribution system Fecal Coliform 0 Turbidity 1 NTU; for disinfection with chlorine, pH preferably 8.0, free chlorine residual 0.2 0.5 mg/l following 30 min (minimum) contact Coliform Organism 0 Water in distribution system Fecal coliforms 0 Coliform organisms 0 In 95% of samples examined throughout the year in the case of large supplies when sufficient samples are examined Colifor Organisms 3 In an occasional sample but not in consecutive samples Source: WHO, 1984 in Huss, (1994) 1) Multiple tube technique (MPN procedure) and the membrane filtration technique have been considered as capable yielding comparable information. Table 4.2. Microbiological criteria (guidelines) for drinking water quality Maximum admissible concentration (MAC) Parameters Results: volume of the sample (ml) Guide level (GL) Membrane filter method Multiple tube method (MPN) Total Coliforms 100 0 MPN 1 Fecal Coliforms 100 0 MPN 1 Fecal streptococci 100 0 MPN 1 Sulphite-reducing clostridia 20 0 MPN 1 Total bacteria counts1) 12) 13) 102) 1003) Source: EEC, 1980 in Huss, (1994) 1) Water for human consumption 2) Incubation at 37oC 3) Incubation at 22oC b) Drinking fountain surface which become wet during fountain operation shall be constructed of materials impervious to water and not subject to oxidation. c) Ice in contact with products shall be made from potable water and maintained in a sanitary condition d) Open water such as water barrels, pails, or tanks for drinking water from which the water must be dipped or poured, whether or not they are fitted with a cover, are prohibited. 2). Non-potable water: a). Non-potable water such as water for industrial or firefighting purposes, is unsafe and not to be used for drinking, washing of the person, cooking, washing of foods, washing of cooking or eating utensils, washing of food preparation or processing premises or personal services rooms, washing food processing equipments or for washing clothes. b) Construction of non-potable water systems or systems carrying any other non-potable substance shall be such as to prevent backflow or back syphonage into a potable water system. Water quality factors Several factors affect to water quality on fish plant. Microbes on water influence to water quality. Water that contains many microbes may have lack on quality. In addition, Organic matter may react and consume disinfectant such as chlorine and ozone and the presence will also interfere with UV light (Huss, 1994). Furthermore, pH is important in disinfection with chlorine and greater inactivation at high pH. In general, higher temperature result in increased inactivation rates (Huss, 1994). Table 4.3. Water quality tolerances Characteristic Maximum limit in ppm PHYSICAL Turbidity (silica scale) 10 color (platinum scale) 10 20 Objectionable taste color 0 CHEMICAL Arsenic 0.05 Barium 1.0 Cadmium 0.01 Chromium 0.05 Copper 3.0 Iron and Manganese 0.3 Lead 0.05 Magnesium 125.0 Manganese 0.1 Mercury 0.002 Nitrate 10.0 Selenium 0.01 Silver 0.05 Zinc 15.0 Chloride 250.0 Fluoride 1.5 Sulfate 250.0 Phenolic compound 0.001 Total solid 500.0 Normal carbonate alkalinity 120.0 Source: Gould, 1994 Table 4.4. Water hardness quality Quality Ppm of Calcium Carbonate Soft water Less than 50 Slightly hard water 50 to 100 Hard water 100 to 200 Very hard water Greater than 200 Source: Gould, 1994 Water quality in processing and cleaning As a general rule, water used on food processing must meet drinking water standards. WHO guidelines, EEC, and Indonesian health minister regulation can be used by fisheries processor to make the water is proper for fish processing. For making the water as a potable water, water have to check and free from disinfectant and bacteria. Turbidity, color, taste and odor are also easily monitored parameters. If there are local problems with chemical constituents (fluoride, iron) or contaminants from industry or agriculture (e.g. nitrate, pesticides, mining wastes) these should be monitored by the processor (Huss, 1994). The chemicals are used as a disinfectants such as chlorine, chloramines, ozone or UV irradiation. Chlorination is the cheapest form of treatment and monitoring of chlorine is relatively easy. According to WHO (1984) the concentration of chlorine in water should be in the range 0.2-0.5 mg/l. For sanitation purposes, it may reach 200 mg/l, but in order to avoid corrosion lower concentrations are advised (50-100 mg/l). Use of non-portable water in a plant The use on non-portable water may be necessary for water conservation purposes or desirable because of cost, but non-portable water should do not use on food processing. The water e.g. be surface water, sea water or chlorinated water from can cooling. Chlorinated water may be used for washing cans after closing before heat treatment, for transporting raw materials before processing (after the water has cooled off), for initial washing of boxes, for cooling of compressor, for use the fire protection lines in non-food areas and for fuming of waste material. It is necessary that portable and non-portable water should be in separate distribution system that should be clearly identifiable (Huss, 1994). Monitoring of water safety Water qualities have to check before build the fish processing and during operation. During operation, water quality that used on fish processing unit should be check once 6 months. If the fish processors using sea water on their factories, they have to check the quality of water more often than used potable water. On monitoring inspection, they can use sensory test before check it with microbiological and physic test on laboratory. The processors have to use accredited laboratory for checking the water quality (Winarno and Surono, 2002). The technical procedures describing the analyses for the common indicator organism are given in the standard textbook. The values used by the company should refer to specific method employed and the recommendation should include how to sample (tap flow, volume, sampling vessel, labeling, etc) and how to handle and examine the sample. Samples should be processed within 24 hours or less and be kept cool, but not frozen (preferably below 50C) and in the dark. The impact of sunlight can be very dramatic causing false negative results (Knochel, 1990 in Huss, 1994). If chlorination is used for disinfection, monitoring of the free chlorine level is the simplest way of checking the water treatment and should be performed most often (e.g. on daily basis). The microbiological indicator may check less frequently. If disinfection systems leaving no residuals are being used, checking the equipment should be done regularly (Huss, 1994). Corrective action Corrective actions have to do as soon as possible if there are found a deviation to standard on processing. For example, if the quality of water in fish processing is low on quality, the processing activity have to stop temporary and recall the product processing with this water. Record Recording have to do on every monitoring action and corrective action. Fish processor used daily sanitation checking, periodic inspection monitoring, and periodic inspection plumbing (Winarno and Surono, 2002). SANITATION STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES Table 4.5. Inactivation of microorganism by free chlorine Organism Water Cl2 residues, mg/l Temperature, oC pH Time, min Reduction % C*t 1) E. coli BDF2) 0.2 25 7.0 15 99.997 ND3) E. coli CDF4) 1.5 4 ? 60 99.9 2.5 E. coli + GAC5) CDF 1.5 4 ? 60 10 60 L. pneumophila (water grown) Tap 0.25 20 7.7 58 99 15 L. pneumophila (media grown) Tap 0.25 20 7.7 4 99 1.1 Acid-fast Mycobacterium chelonei BDF 0.3 25 7.0 60 40 60 Virus Hepatitis A BDF 0.5 5 10.0 49.6 99.99 12.3 Hepatitis A BDF 0.5 5 6.0 6.5 99.99 1.8 Parasites G. lambia BDF 0.2 0.3 5 6.0 99 54 87 G. lambia BDF 0.2 0.3 5 7.0 99 83 133 G. lambia BDF 0.2 0.3 5 8.0 99 119 192 Source: Huss, (1994). 1) C8t product of disinfectant concentration (c) in mg/l and contact time (t) in minutes for 99 % inactivation (mod.a. Sobsey, 1989) 2) BDF = Bufferd demand free 3) ND = no data 4) CDF = chlorine demand free 5) GAC = granular activated carbon. SANITATION STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES 4.4.2. Condition and cleanlines of equipments surface that are directly contact to product A great variety of utensils and equipments are used in the fish factories. There are an abundance of advice and regulation available concerning the requirements for equipment. All of them agree that the food equipments should be non-contaminating and easy to clean. Raw fish, for example, do not have the same standard of hygiene as a cooked or value added product. Criteria for hygienic design are particularly important for equipment that used in the following stages of processing and particularly after bacteria-eliminate by processing stages. There are seven basic principles for hygienic design agreed by Food Manufacturers Federation (FMF) and Food Machinery Association FMA (FMA/FMF 1967) as quoted by Forsythe and Hayes (1998). 1. All surfaces in contact with food must be inert to the food and must not migrate to or be absorbed by the food. 2. All surfaces in contact with food must be smooth and non-porous so that tiny particles of food, bacteria, or insect eggs are not caught in microscopic surface crevices and become difficult to dislodged, thus becoming a potential source of contamination. 3. All surfaces in contact with the food must be visible for inspection or the equipment must be readily disassembled for inspection. 4. All surfaces in contact with food must be readily accessible for manual cleaning, or if not, the readily disassembled for manual cleaning, or if clean-in-place techniques are used, it must be demonstrated that the results achieved without disassembly are the equivalent of those obtained with disassembly and manual cleaning. 5. All interior surfaces in contact with food must be so arranged that the equipment is self-employing or self-draining. 6. Equipment must so designed as to protect the contents from external contamination. 7. The exterior or non-product contact surfaces should be arranged to prevent harboring of soils, bacteria, or pets in and on the equipment itself as well as in its contact with other equipment, floors, walls, or hanging supports. The equipment in food plant is very specific for the type of food being processed. However, there are basic factors that must be considered essesntial in the design and in the installation of equipment to maintain a clean plant for the production and processing of food that is clean and safe (Gould, 1994) According to Gould (1994), some of basic the fundamentals of design should include the following: a. All surfaces in contact with food should be inert to the food under the condition of use and the food surface constituents must not migrate into the food or be adsorbed by or in the food. b. All surfaces in contact with the food must be smooth and non-porous to the food or to bacteria, yeast and/or molds and be totally free from pits or crevices. c. All product contact surfaces must be free of recesses, dead ends, open seams and gaps, crevices, protruding ledges, inside threads, insides shoulders, bolt and/or rivets. d. All equipment should be designed so that all contact surfaces can be readily and thoroughly cleaned and sanitized. e. All food equipments should be available for inspection and cleaning. f. All food equipments should be designed to protect the foods from external contamination. g. All food equipments should be designed so as to eliminate dead ends and dead space or areas to harbor soil, bacteria, molds, yeasts, and other pests. h. All food equipment should installed with three feet clear working area around the equipment. i. All food equipment should be installed with a minimum of six inches off the floor. j. All moving parts should have sealed or self-lubricating bearings. k. Hoods, if necessary, must be installed for ease in cleaning and sanitizing when appropriate. l. Wood and other impervious materials shall not be used in a food plant. m. Stainless steel should be used for the manufacture of all food plant equipment, piping, and all food contact surfaces. n. All food equipment should be acces for the service, preferably from above. o. The food plant equipment should be designed for cleaning in place (CIP) in preference to clean out of place (COP). p. All conveyor guides, splash guard, safety guards should be easily removed or easily opened to permit cleaning. q. All water and steam valves should be designed to prevent any leakage and they should have no pockets or recess areas. r. All food valves should be easily disassembled for cleaning and inspection. s. All piping must be aligned and supported to prevent sagging or any impediment to product flow and it must be self-draining. According to Shapton and Shapton (1991), the most common design faults which cause poor cleanability are: a. poor accessibility (- equipment should be placed at least 1 m from wall, ceiling or nearest equipment; b. inadequately rounded corners (minimum radius should be 1 cm, but 2 cm is regarded as optimum by the American Sanitary Standards Committee); c. sharp angles; d. dead ends (including poorly designed seal). Materials commonly used on food processing equipments are stainless steels, iron and mild steel, copper and its alloy, miscellaneous metals, plastics, rubber, glass, and wood, antimicrobial work surface (triclosan produced by Ciba Geigy) (Forsythe and Hayes, 1998). Monitoring action On fish processing unit, there are several subjects that have to monitor on cleaning of all surfaces equipments that contact directly to food such as surfaces condition which directly contact with products, cleanliness, and sanitation of equipment surfaces that contact directly to food, type and concentration of sanitation material, cleanliness of gloves and worker cloth (Winarno and Surono, 2002). This monitoring can do with visual inspection to surfaces cleanliness whether good or not, cleanliness and sanitation whether maintain by fish processor or not, gloves and worker cloth whether have a good or bad condition. Besides, using visual test, the processor can use chemical test using test strips/kits and microbiological test can do on verification action. Corrective action Several objects have to observe on corrective action such as sanitizer concentration whether variation or not, if it happens management of fish processing have to maintain/change the equipments and trained the worker. Recording Record should be observe at every monitoring and corrective action. The example of record on fish processing are periodically monitoring record, periodically record of chemical concentrations and monthly sanitation monitoring records. 4.4.3. Cross contamination protection Cross-contamination is defined as: any product that directly or indirectly becomes contaminated from contacting contaminants from another product, package, or area. The environment at a seafood plant location can contribute to contamination, as well as contamination to the products. The processing equipment, containers, and work surfaces are other contamination sources. An effective sanitation program is necessary to reduce contamination and to monitor program effectiveness. Cross contamination is easy to occur from raw materials. Many pathogenic bacteria are naturally present in aquatic environments Clostridium botulinum type E, pathogenic Vibrio sp., Aeromonas) and the general environment (C.botulinum type A and B, Listeria monocytogenes) (Huss et al. 2000). Other microorganisms are of the animal/human reservoir (Salmonella, Shigella, E.coli, enteric virus) (Huss et al. 2000). Although this pathogen is destroyed through pasteurization and thermal processing, it often enters cooked, ready-to-eat products as a post-processing contaminant. The pathogenic bacteria may live in fish, these microorganisms may be passed on the raw materials during production and processing. In general, when a fish is caught, the flesh is sterile whereas after death the fishs immune system collapses allowing easy access of microorganisms into the flesh (Huss 1995). Some microorganisms have been found on the entire outer surface (skin and gills) and in the intestines of live and newly healthy caught fish (Huss 1995). If these microorganism move to other materials on processing area, it will cause contamination on products or equipment. It can be affect to product quality. Processing equipments Processing equipments can be as a source of contamination on fish manufacture. It is therefore necessary that equipment in the processing establishment, coming in contact with food, be constructed in such a way as to ensure adequate cleaning, disinfection and proper maintenance to avoid the contamination (CAC 1997). To avoid cross contamination, processing equipments are have specific color for specific area, e.g. blue for raw materials products, white for processing area, and yellow for toilet and general plant cleaning. Personnel Personnel are one of vital component on cross contamination during fish processing. Transfer of microorganisms by personnel particularly from hands, is of vital importance (Chen et al. 2001; Bloomfield 2003). During fish handling and processing, bacteria may transfer from contaminated worker hands to raw materials or product and equipments surfaces. Low infectious doses of organisms such as Shigella and pathogenic Escherichia coli have been linked to hands as a source of contamination (Snyder 1998). Proper hand washing and disinfection has been recognized as one of the most effective measures to control the spread of pathogens, especially when considered along with the restriction of ill workers (Adler, 1999). To avoid cross contamination the employee should have received basic food sanitation training and employee do not result in food contamination. Water Water is important factor on fish processing, there are not fish processing without water. Water is a vehicle for the transmission of many agents of disease and continues to cause significant outbreaks of disease in developed and developing countries world-wide (Kirby et al., 2003). It is therefore important that potable water is used throughout the production process, for cleaning equipment, washing food, as well as ice making (Kirby et al., 2003). According to www.seafoodfromvietnam.com, stated that the main methods to avoid cross-contamination referring to the design and the technological installations of the factory are: the production line should be installed in straight line with no overlapping steps; ceiling, wall, equipment, machines in the factory must be always maintained; floor, walls, sewerage surfaces must be smooth to easy to clean; floor, walls, sewerage must be sanitized after each shift; all gates to the factories interior and to the different production rooms must kept closed tight best by doors. they should have in addition plastic curtains installed inside after the doors that protect against insects and contamination from outside; ventilation systems should be arranged close to the ceilings and must be protected against contamination from outside and always found in good operating condition; processing water and waste water drainage system should be constructed under the principles of flowing from area of high hygiene risk to low risk; drainage holes and ways must be constructed to not allow harmful animals to enter and must prevent a back flow of waste water during production. Monitoring Monitoring program on this section is starting from the source, through treatment, distribution and storage within the factory, to ensure that the water complies with internal or legislative standards (Kirby et al., 2003). According to Winarno and Surono (2002), there are several monitoring actions on cross contamination protection, namely: 1. Managers have to separate different activities such as between handling/processing of raw material with products. 2. Separating different products on storage 3. Cleanliness and area sanitation and handling equipments and food processing 4. Practice on Personal hygiene, cloth and hand washing 5. Practice to personal and equipments on product handling. 6. Personal flow on factory Several incorrect actions do by workers during processing: a. handing raw materials, then handle products; b. work close to or on the floor, then handle product; c. handling materials of can, then handle product; d. back from toilet did not wash hands; e. the shovel to handle waste on the floor, is also used for handle products; f. scratching face then handle the product; g. holding the unclean door handle, then handle the product. Corrective action According to Winarno and Surono (2002), quality assurance team have to do several corrective actions when there is a discrepancy monitoring that cause cross contamination. a. stop the activities till normally; b. take the preventive action; c. safety product evaluation, if it is necessary disposition to other products, re-process, and disposed to contaminated product. 4.4.4. Preserving hand washing facilities, sanitation, and toilet Washing facilities A hand washing facility should be ideally be provided in the factory entrance so that it can be used every time somebody enters. It should have hand hot (40-50oC) running water; pedal operated taps are best. Soap and single-use towels should be provided and/or hot air hand dries. No towels are needed for a wet process room. If paper towels are used, a bin must be provided; the contents of the bin must be burned at intervals, well away from the processing area. There are a number of the requirements on washing facilities: Have adequate washing facilities e.g. 1 washing facility for 10 workers Be located on appropriate place e.g. in front of entrance door on fish processing. Should be have flow water sources and dryer, and also bin. In addition, fish plant should have washing hand rooms, hygienic bathrooms and replacement rooms for changing clothes and boots. Table 4.6. Minimum number of lavatories in food processing Type of employment Number of employees Minimum number of lavatories Non industrial office buildings, public buildings, and similar establishments 1 15 1 16 35 2 36 60 3 61 90 4 91 125 5 Over 125 Additional fixture for each additional 45 employees Industrial factories, warehouses, loft building, and similar establishment 1 10 1 fixture for each 10 employees Over 100 1 fixture for each 15 additional employees Source: Gould (1994) Cleaning systems The most comprehensive procedure for manual cleaning and disinfection of Clean Out of Place (COP). It is suitable for modern plants. For cleaning liquid handling plants like breweries and dairies Clean In Place (CIP) system will be used, based on circulation by pumping of water, cleaning agents and disinfectants. In principle, the two systems will be similar. The most factories, a combination of COP and CIP will be used. Use of CIP may be limited to part of the plants or even to a particular machine. However, regardless of the type and size of food production the general principles behind the complex. The frequency of cleaning and disinfection will vary from several times during the working i.e. at every major break to once every day, at the end of production, or even less frequent. Table 4.7. Steps cleaning on fish plant Step Kinds of cleaning Purposes 1 Dry Clean surfaces are wiped and floors swept solid wastes (i.e. seafood scraps) are put into waste bins 2 Cold water wash (removes soluble waste softens remaining materials) Use cold water under pressure to wash walls, floors, and equipment. Hot water is not recommended as it causes food residues to set and become difficult to remove start from the corners and work towards the drain (top to bottom) to reduce the spread of contamination 3 Apply detergent Scrub (loosens and lifts soil and dirt) apply an approved food grade detergent to all surfaces, moving upwards from the bottom to the top and observing manufacturers instructions (i.e. concentration, contact time, temperature) scrub equipment and surfaces using cleaning pads or sponges remove any build up of materials (e.g. around hand basins and equipment) 4 Warm water rinse (removes dissolved waste materials and cleaning chemicals) rinse all detergent from the surfaces using warm potable water under pressure from the top down 5 Apply sanitizer (kills any bacteria present) very hot water (greater than 750C) or an approved food grade chemical sanitizer may be used apply the sanitizer to all surfaces by moving upwards from the bottom to the top and observing manufacturers instructions (i.e. concentration, contact time, temperature) 6 Hot water rinse (removes sanitizer) rinse all sanitizer from the surfaces using hot potable water (greater that 75C) under pressure from the top down 7 Flush drainage system flush the drainage system with high pressure water for several minutes to prevent a build up of food residues and the possible production of odors 8 Allow to air dry ensure surfaces and equipment dry rapidly. do not dry surfaces with tea towels as they may re-contaminate the surface (if a towel is needed, use a disposable paper towel) 9 Inspect inspect surfaces and equipment for cleaning effectiveness determine if they look, feel and smell clean? (i.e. look for streaks, feel for grease residues, wipe with a tissue to detect discolorization, run you finger under bench tops, move equipment, if you can smell fishy odors then there is a cleaning problem) may be performed as part of the Pre-Operational Hygiene Inspection or during hygiene audits Source: Anonymous (2002) Table 4.6 . Chemical Disinfectants Chemicals groups Range of activity Examples of brands Alcohols Aldehydes Ampholytes Chlorhexidine Chlorine compounds Iodine compounds Phenolics Chloroxylenol clear soluble White Pine fluids Quaternary ammonium compounds wide wide narrow narrow wide wide] narrow wide wide extra narrow narrow Cidex Tego Hibitane Brobat Bleach, Domestos, Milton Wescodyne, lodron (iodophors) Betadine (povidone-iodine) Dettol Clearsol, Hycolin Izal Germicide Jeypine Shield Savlon (includes chlorhexidine) Source: Table. 4.7. Inactivating material Chemical groups Foods Inactivation by * Synthetic products ** Natural products Hard water Alcohols Ampholytes Chlorhexidine Chlorine compounds Iodine compounds Phenolics chioroxylenol clear soluble white Quaternary ammonium compounds Slight Serious Serious Serious Serious Serious Slight Slight Serious Slight Serious Serious Slight Slight Moderate Moderate Moderate Serious Slight Serious Serious Slight Slight Moderate Moderate Moderate Serious Slight Serious Serious Slight Slight Serious Slight Slight Serious * Synthetic products = plastics and nylon **Natural products = rubber, wood, cork, cotton, paper, cellulose sponge All surfaces, equipments, and utensils that come into contact with seafood should be cleaned and sanitized at least on a daily basis. This means it should be odorless, free of soil, and be almost entirely free of bacteria. Food handlers who are asked to use chemical disinfectants must be instructed and supervised to ensure the fresh preparation, daily, of the disinfectant solutions. The containers for the fresh solutions must be not only clean but also disinfected by heat, as described earlier, to destroy any bacteria which may remain in the containers. Toilets Adequate and separate toilet facilities must be provided for male and female employees. The principle toilets should be sited at some distance from the production area. In larger factories additional toilets will supplement them and these should be sited close to but not opening directly onto processing and storage areas. Double self-closing tight fitting doors are required although automatically operated doors are preferable. Toilets should conform to the same standards of hygiene demanded in food handling areas of the factory, and cleaning and disinfection should be carried out least once per day. Construction materials for ceiling, walls, floors and cubicle partitions should be durable and surface should be hard, impervious to water, smooth and easily cleaned. Junctions between walls and floors should be coved and wall angles rounded. Floors should slope towards drain and efficient ventilation to the outsides atmosphere, possibly aided by extraction fans, is vital. All toilet facilities must be well maintained and operating at all times, and in employees should be encouraged to play a part. In total, water closets, preferably foot-operated, should be provided at the rate of 1 per 15 female employees whilst 1 urinal and 1 water closet per 25 males is necessary. Employees should be reminded of the need to wash their hands when leaving the toilet by suitably worded notices but this should be reinforced by routine checks by supervisory staff. Additional hand-washing facilities should be sited at all entrances to food handling areas. Here foot-or knee-operated rose head miser tape are preferable as splashing is reduced. Toilet rooms separate for each sex, shall be provided in all places of employment. The number of facilities to be provided for each sex for whom the facilities are furnished. Where toilet rooms will be occupied by no more than one person at a time, can be locked from the inside, and contain at least one water closet, separate toilet rooms for each sex need to be provided (Gould, 1994). Flush toilet should be provided at the following ratios : Table 4.8. Toilet should be provided on fish processing Number of employees Number of toilets 1 9 1 10 24 2 25 49 3 50 100 5 Clucas and Ward (1996) An extra toilet is the requiret for every additional 30 employees. 4.4.5. Protection from contaminant materials Monitoring There is a number of monitoring action on this section, such as monitoring toxin materials and unsanitary water every 4 hours since starting production. Corrective action Corrective action is possible to do if there are deviation matters on monitoring action: 1. Vanishing contamination materials from surfaces 2. Repairing air flow to reduce condensation 3. Avoiding water puddle on the floor 4. Using water to wash foot and wheel before entrance to processing room 5. Training 6. Throwing un-labeling chemical materials. Recording Records that are needed on this point are sanitation periodic control record and daily sanitation control record. 4.4.6. Labeling and storage Several types of printed labeling are common pressure-sensitive plastic, paper and laminated aluminum foil labels. Sleeve labels are clipped or fixed with adhesive around pots and tubs. Such containers may require features, such as a recessed panel, in their design to facilitate the location of the label. Some packs are designed so that after use a paperboard label and plastic pot may be easily separated to meet waste management needs. Another popular form of labeling of bottles and jars is the printed plastic shrink sleeve. These are supplied flat and printed in tubular form on reels. After automatic application, the container passes into a heated zone which causes the label to shrink tightly around the container. Labels Labels in the context of food packaging comprise the labels which are applied to: * primary packaging in the form of cans, bottles, jars, pots, tubs, cartons, corrugated fiberboard cases, fiber drums and molded pulp containers; * transit packs (secondary packaging) such as cases and stretch/shrink wrapped packs; * palletized loads (tertiary packaging) the food product directly (promotional labels), e.g. fruit. The products concerned and, where, for instance, a label is applied over a closure, provide security as a tamper evident feature. Labels are characterized by their substrate, adhesion and method of application. The substrate may be paper, paperboard and laminates thereof to aluminum foil and plastic films. There is a wide choice of paper based substrate depending on the appearance and finish required. The paper may be uncoated, on-machine white mineral pigment coated in matte, satin or gloss finishes, or cast coated off-machine with white or colored mineral pigment coatings. Where laminates to aluminum foil are used, they are often embossed. Labels may use any of the conventional print processes, the choice being influenced by the order quantity and finished appearance required. Digital printing is also used, as is ink jet printing, on the packing line. Varnishing is applied to provide protection, e.g. wet rub resistance, and gloss. Hot foil stamping is used to enhance appearance. Products information on label are : 1. Lot/Batch identification On labeling should be added producer name and no of batch. It is important for product recalling and stopping distribution of product. 2. Product information It contains information about nutrition, ingredients, composition, how to choose, handle, store, process and consume of product with safety and the correct manner. 3. Labeling system Food product should be have a good label which have good color, appropriate size, and different from the other products. In addition, labeling system should base on Indonesian Health ministry regulation No 79/Menkes/Per/III/1978 about Label and the advertising of food. 4. Training for consumer Monitoring The purpose of the monitoring this are to ensure that the labeling, storage, and use of toxins is true for protection of product from contamination. Some aspects that are monitored is the activity and labeling systems, storage and use of toxins. Some things to note is that the labeling should be mention: The name of the product in the packaging; The name and address of the distributor; The usage instructions Labeling on packaging also mention: a. The name of product in the packaging b. The usage of instruction The storage for materials that are toxin should be store in: 1. Storing the materials on limited access area; 2. The food grade material with non-food grade have to separate, 3. The materials have to throw away from the equipment and goods that are contact with the product. Monitoring action should be conducted on sufficient frequency; it is recommended at least once a day, and the observation of conditions and activities throughout the day. Corrective action Corrective action should be conducted on labeling and storage are: 1. remove the toxin material that is untrue storage, 2. return the material that are not properly labeled to the supplier, 3. correction labels, 4. discard damaged containers, 5. check safety of product, 6. carry out training Recording Recording for monitoring and corrective action that should be done as follows: 1. Periodic control sanitation records, 2. Daily control sanitation record, 3. Daily log information, 4.4.7. Monitoring on Personal Hygiene Many hygiene problems arise from the staff themselves. It is therefore important to ensure that they are healthy, and that they have a basic understanding of the need for good personal hygiene. Good personal hygiene is essential for preventing bacterial contamination of seafood, and can be as simple as: washing hands frequently; wearing clean protective clothing; and keeping worker healthy and clean. Staff should not be allowed to work in food processing area while suffering from intestinal infection as these may be transited to the food. Open cuts and boils on the hands may harbor pathogenic staphylococci, and any staff with such lesions should cover them with waterproof dressings. If possible, dressed cuts should not come into direct contact with food. If this is not possible, the member of staff affected should be transferred to areas where they do not come directly into contact with the food. Staff should not be allowed to wear outdoor clothing within the processing area as the standards of hygiene outside the factory will invariably be lower. Cloakrooms will therefore need to be provided where outdoor clothing can be storage during the working day and where staff can change into clean overalls. Cloakrooms should include lockers for the safe keeping of valuables such as rings and watches which are not allowed on the factory floor. The factory should provide all workers with clean overalls, hats and, where appropriate, rubber gloves (Clucas Ward, 1996). Food handlers are required to maintain clean protective clothing that prevents food from coming into contact with any portion of their ordinary clothing. The upper and lower torso is to be covered when handling or preparing un-packaged seafood. According to Anonymous (2002), protective clothing is used to protect the food from contamination and may include: hair covering (caps or hair nets), apron, gloves, and enclosed footwear or boots. Hair is a common cause of physical and bacterial contamination of foods. To prevent hair from coming into contact with food or food contact surfaces, food handlers are required to wear clean hair covering when in food preparation, packing and services areas. Personal Hygiene Personal hygiene is a most important element of health quality assurance in a fish processing plant. According to Thorpe (1992), the essential requirements for personnel working in production area and stores are those mentioned below: 1. protective clothing, footwear and headgear issued by the company must be worn and must be changed regularly. When considered appropriate by management, a fine hairnet must be worn in addition to the protective headgear provided. Hair clips and grips should not be worn. Visitors and contractors must comply with this regulation; 2. protective clothing must not be worn off the site and must be kept in good condition. If it is in poor condition, the supervisor should be informed immediately; 3. beards must be kept short and trimmed, and a protective cover worn when considered appropriate by management; 4. nail varnish, false nails, and make up must not be worn in production areas; 5. false eyelashes, wrist watches and jewelry (except wedding rings or the national equivalent, and sleeper earrings) must not be worn; 6. hands must be washed regularly and kept clean at all times; 7. personal items must not be taken into production areas unless carried in inside overall pockets (handbags, shopping bags must be left in the locker provided); 8. food and drink must not be taken into or consumed in areas other than the tea bars and the staff restaurant; 9. sweets and chewing gum must not be consumed in production areas; 10. smoking or taking snuff is forbidden in food production, warehouse, and distribution areas where No Smoking notices are displayed; 11. spitting is forbidden in all areas of the site; 12. superficial injuries (cuts, grazes, boils, sores and skin infections) must be reported to the medical unit or nurse via the supervisor and clearance obtained before entering production areas; 13. dressings must be waterproof and contain a metal strip as approved by the medical unit; 14. infectious diseases (including stomach disorders, diarrhea, skin conditions and discharge from eyes, nose or ears) must be reported to the medical unit or nurse via the supervisor. This also applies to staff returning from travel abroad where there could be a risk of infection; 15. all staff must report to medical unit on return from both certified and uncertified sickness. According to Anonymous (2002), staff should wash their hands with soap and warm water: * before handling seafood, * after handling raw seafood and before handling cooked seafood, * immediately after using toilet, * after eating or smoking, * after performing cleaning duties, * after handling any waste materials, and * immediately after coughing or sneezing into hands, wiping nose, scratching head, face or body under protective outer clothing. In addition, according to Anonymous (2002), following is a list of some other recommended personal hygiene requirements: * Cover cuts, burns, rashes or other injuries. Use brightly colored, waterproof bandages wear a disposable glove over the top; * Remove all jewelry as it prevents effective hand washing and poses a risk of physical contamination; * Remove nail polish, heavily scented hand creams or other cosmetics that could contaminate the seafood; * Do not eat or drink in food preparation or storage areas; * Do not smoke in food preparation or storage areas. As is required by the Food safety (General Food Hygiene) Regulation 1995 in Forsythe and Hayes (1998), all cuts, sores and other skin abrasions must be covered with approved waterproof dressing which prevent the transmission of skin bacteria on to other surfaces. Dressing must be replaced regularly and not allowed to become dirty. Health of worker Occupational health services are available in industry. Most large departmental stores and factories possess well-equipped medical departments including a surgery and waiting room. When an identified outbreak of food poisoning or other disease occurs in a factory or in the community arising from factory procedure, the first people to be involved are the on-site doctor and nurse. It is then the responsibility of the medical staff to inform the management and the offices of the Medical Environmental Health departments (Betty Diane, 1987). According Anonymous (2002), staffs are required to tell management if they are suffering from: 1. Severe cold or flu symptoms. 2. Stomach cramps, vomiting, and/or diarrhea. 3. Contagious or infectious diseases. 4. Infected wounds, sores, or boils. 5. Dermatitis, rashes, or skin irritations. They are not permitted to perform any activity where there is direct contact with seafood, and should only work in areas where there is no risk of contamination. Medical examination Physical examination is usually required at the beginning of employment, to establish freedom from tubercle infection, intestinal pathogens and skin infection. Also a medical certificate should state freedom from past typhoid- like illnesses and skin diseases. Periodic examination of stools from healthy food handlers is not recommended. Amongst meat and poultry workers salmonellae may be excreted for a short time only, the serotypes changing according to the pattern of serotypes in the animals and birds and in the carcass and poultry meat (Betty Diane, 1987). All applicants seeking employment in the food industry processing, who are likely to come direct or indirect contact with foods, should be examined medically to ensure fitness or work (Forsythe and Hayes, 1998). Obviously, the rationale of the medical examination and questionnaire for applicants should be applied to existing employees on continuous basis. It is essential that management is informed immediately of any such complaints so that the correct remedial action may be initiated (Forsythe and Hayes, 1998). Monitoring Monitoring is intended to control health condition of worker that can cause microbiological contamination on food, packaging materials, and food contact surfaces. Some symptoms of worker are needed to get attention during monitoring such as diarrhea, fever, vomiting, jaundice, sore throat, skin lesions, ulcers, and dark urine. Corrective action Some action that taken by management are: repatriating the personnel, covering the wound with impermeable bandage, then repatriate personnel. Recording The management should be record the data health examination and records regular corrective action when a deviation occurs. 4.4.8. Pest Control The possible entry of insects, birds, and vermin such as rats and mice, must be prevented at the construction stage. There should be no trees, gardens, cultivated area, etc. inside the side compound as these provide habitats for vermin and insects. The buildings should be surrounded by an area of concrete or tarmac. Flies, which are notorious for carrying disease, should be excluded from the processing area. Devices which used ultraviolet light to attract flies appear to be ineffective in tropical areas, possibly because the sun shining through open windows is a brighter source of ultraviolet light than the trap itself. It is therefore probably more effective to exclude the flies than to try to catch them. Domestic animals such as dogs, cats, chicken, ducks, etc. should never be allowed to wander around in the processing area and should be banned from the site altogether. All these warm-blooded animals can carry pathogenic organisms. Water traps at the points where drainage chabbels pass through the walls to the outside should prevent the entry of rats, mice, and cockroaches. Pests are a potential source of contamination. Flies, cockroaches, mice, birds, and animals all carry bacteria and, if not controlled, they can bring food poisoning bacteria into a premises. According to Wrzesien et al., (2005) There are many pests which danger to fish processing plant namely: a. ZOONOSIS Zoonosis are defined as those infections which are naturally transmitted between vertebrate animals and man (W.H.O. Committee on Zoonosis, 1969). Zoonosis as we know are infectious diseases, and are caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa or by parasites, may infect the body through the respiratory tract, mucous membranes, the mouth or the skin, scrapes or wound. Zoonosis can be transmitted from animals to man by several methods. Direct Transmission; direct or immediate contact with a diseased animal. (e.g. Rabies, ringworm). Indirect Transmission; exposure to disease by being in contact with objects or materials which have been contaminated by a diseased animal. (i.e. Amoebiasis, hookworm). b. RODENTS Rodents include rats, mice and voles, both those common to human habitations as well as local and naturally occurring wild rodent populations. Rodents can be disease vectors as well as freeloaders on a Sites food supplies, and rodents can also cause physical damage to material and to other animals. c. BIRDS Birds such as pigeons, sparrows, starlings, raptors and various waterfowl can compete for food with site animals, foul food and water and be vectors and reservoirs for disease. d. INSECTS AND ARACHNIDS Cockroaches, flies, ants, ticks, fleas and lice all cause various problems, they contaminate food supplies (their larvae), spread disease and are parasitic on (or annoy) site animals. Cockroaches can carry several infectious agents and parasites. Spiders are generally beneficial but centipedes can bite. e. INDIGENOUS AND FERAL CARNIVORES Predators can cause much damage in sanctuaries by killing and injuring animals spreading disease such as rabies, and generally stressing animals. f. PLANTS Poisonous plants, thorny brush, trees and weeds can also be annoying/dangerous to animals, staff, and visitors. Many factors contribute to the presence of pests in the site today and much can be done to eliminate them or reduce them to manageable proportions. The best cleaning and sanitizing procedure can be destroyed if cockroaches or mice are active during the night. Good personal hygiene and food handling practices can also be in vain if flies have access to food processing areas or seafood is not protected from flies. According Anonymous (2002), to control pests, two possible approaches that can be used: * preventive measures, and * elimination measures. Furthermore, according to Anonymous (2002), preventive measures are the most effective approach and often the cheapest. They aim to: * prevent pest entry to the premises, and * remove the food supply (e.g. starve them out). Elimination methods are used to control pests that gain access to premises. These types of pest control methods are usually more expensive but may be required under certain circumstances. The location of baits and the application of chemical sprays are particularly important because baits and sprays could contaminate seafood. Baits must be located away from foods. Foods and packaging materials must be protected from chemical sprays. You may need to seek professional advice when deciding what pest control measures to use. Effective pest control also requires routine premises inspections to look for signs of pest activity (such as smears, droppings, gnaw marks). This could be done weekly as part of the cleaning program. Look in the places where activity may be expected, such as inside cupboards, underneath refrigerators, and in drains. Table 4.11. Two approaches on pest control Preventive Measures Elimination Measures Fly screens, plastic strips, air blowers Internal Fly traps zappers Sealing access points (e.g. cracks) Rodent or coakroach traps baits Eliminating harbourage sites The application o chemical sprays Contralling waste materials Effective cleaning Cover foods or store in lidded containers Source: Anonymous (2002) Rodents should be controlled in and around a food plant for three basic reasons, that is, (1) the economic of lost products consumed by them and the damage to other product causing their destruction, (2) the aesthetics standpoint, that is, rodents and their filth is repugnant, and (3) from the standpoint that rodents are carries and transmitter of disease (Gould, 1994). The most important step in control of mice and rats is to remove all harborages, including hollow structural and storage areas within the plant. Bait boxes with anticoagulant type baits may be effective for rats. Bait boxes must be located on the entrance and around the perimeter of buildings (Gould, 1994). Birds are a nuisance in and around a food establishment. They may contaminate raw material, product or material in food processing or storage, and outgoing materials. They cause objectionable odors, deface property and they may be the cause of disease. The most trouble bird are pigeons, house sparrows, and starlings (Gould, 1994). Monitoring The aim of pest monitoring is to confirm that the pest has been removed from the processing area. Monitoring action can be done by visual inspection, use a flashlight to hide and animals trap, to keep the area clean and facilitate supervision. Corrective action In the example when the observation was made, in fact, after using of pesticides and traps, flies back to entering the processing room, then the corrective actions that can be done is to add a air curtain on the above of outer door and remove the waste out of the container. Recording The control records in this point are periodic sanitation controls record and daily sanitation control record. 4.5. Summary SSOPs were necessary in the definition of each establishments responsibility to consistently follow effective sanitation procedures and to minimize the risk of direct product contamination or adulteration. SSOPs are sets of a specific sanitation and hygiene principles procedures and practices to ensure cleanliness/safety of food products during production. SSOP is an prerequisite program, before fish processing implement of HACCP.

The Importance Of Greenwashing As A Marketing Strategy

Within the research for this paper the standard of confidentiality was adhered to. The transcript from the interview does not hold any identifying factors, only those involved directly with the research can access any identifying particulars about the interview participant. Findings and Discussion Interview Findings From the research interview it was established that greenwashing as a marketing strategy is effective because there is an increasing amount of consumers concerned about the state of the environment and this creates a legitimate market. Primarily, this effectiveness is due to the fact that greenwashing has the capability to create and sustain a new market, as the interview participant mentioned that individuals who are concerned with the environment generally still consume and this new market has the ability to fulfil this need. The research participant described greenwashing as allowing various unethical companies to have eco sections to their corporations. 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Week paper study mode Free Essays

This allows for real-time monitoring as well as report enervated analyses. However, there are a few cornerstone components that should be explored. The Manager, Agent, NIB, Probe, SNAP, and ROOM are probably the most valued components. We will write a custom essay sample on Week paper study mode or any similar topic only for you Order Now Let us start with the Manager and Agent. These terms are very similar in concept to the client/server relationship. The Manager/Agent relationship is an asymmetric communication type that works in a way, much like a selectiveness. Take a look to the anaphoric (Figure 1). You can see how the manager acts as a client while the managed system acts as a server per SE. However, while animal, there is a difference from the client/server that should be noted when applying it to the Manager/Agent relationship. Where there typically is many clients to one server, there are many agent to one manager. (Clime 77) So now that we have that straightened out, let us look at each role a little closer. The Manager acts as the controller and reporter of the Network Management System. It can physically be either an application or a user. Typically the manager is an application that monitors various devices also known as Network Elements, (NEST) on a network. Theses network elements managed by he manager are considered Agents. Agents respond back to requests from the manager for information. They send back vital information about the devices and the overall network to the manager. This is how the manager updates the data it can produce to be later analyzed by the Network Administrator or monitored in real-time. (Clime 77) If you look to the right (Figure 2), you can see an example of what the information might look like when reported back to the user. A Probe is the way the NIB retrieves the instances it stores. While the term probe may have many definitions, for our reposes, we will define it as: â€Å"A probe is a program or other device inserted at a key juncture in a network for the purpose of monitoring or collecting data about network activity. † (â€Å"Probe†) So a probe can be used to gather information that will later be stored virtually in the NIB. A simple example of a probe is the very common â€Å"Ping† command. It sends out a packet to check for the existence of the EN on the Network. Next, let’s look at one of the common protocols used in the Network Management System. Simple Network Management Protocol, commonly abbreviated as SNAP, is the rotator that enables a manager to communicate with the many agents on the network. SNAP operates on the application layer of the OSI model, due to it being a TCP/IP protocol. Every SNAP packet sent contains a community string a version number, and a command or response for the manager. (â€Å"Network Monitoring Sofa;are by Management Manager†) Finally, the last Common component to discuss is the ROOM. ROOM is short for remote monitoring. â€Å"ROOM is basically a special SNAP NIB that enables managers to delegate certain management tasks to so-called ROOM probes. (Clime 307) As you can tell, the ROOM utilizes and interacts with a few of the other key component ants already mentioned. Some of the ROOM probe functions are the ability to create dividing lines of certain thresholds for alerts or creating a probe to run hourly for status of a certain instance. In conclusion, the Network Management System is u sed to monitor and manage a network’s stability and smooth operation. The Manager, Agent, NIB, SNAP, and ROOM are five of the main components to a MS. Through the utilization of these components, a Manager can interact with agents on the network. How to cite Week paper study mode, Papers

The Invention of Blue Jeans free essay sample

1873 blue jeans were invented by a well known man named Levi Strauss. Blue jeans became popular for farmers and workers, because they were tougher and less likely to rip. Many Americans wore jeans for comfort, too. A 24-year-old German immigrant named Levi Strauss departed from New York with  little supply of dry  materials. He also had the intention of opening  an extension  of his brothers New York business that he was bringing to San Francisco. Strauss did not want to be a prospector, so he decided he would make enough money by selling supplies to the miners. First, Strauss sold cloth, textiles, and sewing supplies to the miners, but he didnt earn much profit by doing that. Then he heard the miners complaining about how easily they ripped their pants, so Strauss decided to use some of his heavy canvas fabric to make the miners pants to wear. The first jeans were made of a material called ‘duck’, but this fabric was not particularly comfortable. We will write a custom essay sample on The Invention of Blue Jeans or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Then Strauss made the jeans using fabric called denim. Denim is a tough, cotton fabric which is made by passing under two or more threads. This fabric made jeans much more popular for everyone to wear, not just workers. In 1873, Jacob Davis wrote him a letter saying that he could make durable pockets with metal rivets for the pants. But Davis didnt have enough money to share his idea, so he offered to give his idea to Strauss if Strauss agreed to pay his patent. Strauss agreed, and from then on blue jeans had metal rivet pockets. Then the idea for jeans was to dye them with indigo, to make jeans blue. After that, blue jeans were considered perfect. Blue jeans changed the style of dressing later in history. After they were invented, blue jeans were typically only used for protection. But soon after Strauss changed the fabric to denim, they became comfortable and stylish. American’s then thought of new ideas for jeans, and the styles changed to all different kinds of jeans like skinny jeans, straight leg, boot cut, etc. They initially changed the way of dressing, and the future style of Americans. Blue jeans became popular for farmers and workers, because they were tough, strong, durable pants that everyone could rely on not ripping. They became the apparel that changed America’s style of dressing too, and the most popular type of pants. Jeans are still largely popular, and they will continually be modified to fit the changing style of America.

International Economics and U.s. Exports Essay Example Essay Example

International Economics and U.s. Exports Essay Example Paper International Economics and U.s. Exports Essay Introduction International Flow of Funds Lecture Outline Balance of Payments Current Account Capital and Financial Accounts International Trade Flows Distribution of U. S. Exports and Imports U. S. Balance of Trade Trend International Trade Issues Events That Increase International Trade Trade Friction Factors Affecting International Trade Flows Impact of Inflation Impact of National Income Impact of Government Policies Impact of Exchange Rates Interaction of Factors Correcting a Balance of Trade Deficit Why a Weak Home Currency is not a Perfect Solution International Capital Flows Distribution of DFI by U. S. Firms Distribution of DFI in the U. S. Factors Affecting Direct Foreign Investment Factors Affecting International Portfolio Investment Impact of International Capital Flows Agencies that Facilitate International Flows How International Trade Affects an MNC’s Value Chapter Theme This chapter provides an overview of the international environment surrounding MNCs. The chapter is macro- oriented in that it discusses international payments on a country-by-country basis. This macro discussion is useful information for an MNC since the MNC can be affected by changes in a country’s current account and capital account positions. . Balance of Payments. a. Of what is the current account generally composed? ANSWER: The current account balance is composed of (1) the balance of trade, (2) the net amount of payments of interest to foreign investors and from foreign investment, (3) payments from international tourism, and (4) private gifts and grants. b. Of what is the capital account generally composed? ANSWER: The capital account is composed of all capital investments made between countries, including both direct foreign investment and purchases of securities with maturities exceeding one year. . Inflation Effect on Trade. a. How would a relatively high home inflation rate affect the home country’s current account, other things being equal? ANSWER: A high infla tion rate tends to increase imports and decrease exports, thereby increasing the current account deficit, other things equal. b. Is a negative current account harmful to a country? Discuss. ANSWER: This question is intended to encourage opinions and does not have a perfect solution. A negative current account is thought to reflect lost jobs in a country, which is unfavorable. International Economics and U.s. Exports Essay Body Paragraphs Yet, the foreign importing reflects strong competition from foreign producers, which may keep prices (inflation) low. 3. Government Restrictions. How can government restrictions affect international payments among countries? ANSWER: Governments can place tariffs or quotas on imports to restrict imports. They can also place taxes on income from foreign securities, thereby discouraging investors from purchasing foreign securities. If they loosen restrictions, they can encourage international payments among countries. 4. IMF. a. What are some of the major objectives of the IMF? ANSWER: Major IMF objectives are to (1) promote cooperation among countries on international monetary issues, (2) promote stability in exchange rates, (3) provide temporary funds to member countries attempting to correct imbalances of international payments, (4) promote free mobility of capital funds across countries, and (5) promote free trade. b. How is the IMF involved in international trade? ANSWER: The IMF i n involved in international trade because it attempts to stabilize international payments, and trade represents a significant portion of the international payments. 5. Exchange Rate Effect on Trade Balance. Would the U. S. balance of trade deficit be larger or smaller if the dollar depreciates against all currencies, versus depreciating against some currencies but appreciated against others? Explain. ANSWER: If the dollar weakens against all currencies, the U. S. balance of trade deficit will likely be smaller. Some U. S. importers would have more seriously considered purchasing their goods in the U. S. if most or all currencies simultaneously strengthened against the dollar. Conversely, if some currencies weaken against the dollar, the U. S. importers may have simply shifted their importing from one foreign country to another. 6. Demand for Exports. A relatively small U. S. balance of trade deficit is commonly attributed to a strong demand for U. S. exports. What do you think is th e underlying reason for the strong demand for U. S. exports? ANSWER: The strong demand for U. S. exports is commonly attributed to strong foreign economies or to a weak dollar. 7. Impact on International Trade. Why do you think international trade volume has increased over time? In general, how are inefficient firms affected by the reduction in trade restrictions among countries and the continuous increase in international trade? ANSWER. International trade volume has increased because of the reduction in trade restrictions over time. It may have also increased for many other reasons, such as increased information flow (via Internet etc. ) between firms in different countries. Inefficient firms are adversely affected if they have to face tougher competition from foreign firms as a result of a reduction in trade restrictions. 8. Effects of the Euro. Explain how the existence of the euro may affect U. S. international trade. ANSWER: The euro allowed for a single currency among many Eu ropean countries. It could encourage firms in those countries to trade among each other since there is no exchange rate risk. This would possibly cause them to trade less with the U. S. The euro can increase trade within Europe because it eliminates the need for several European countries to exchange currencies when trading with each other. 9. Currency Effects. When South Korea’s export growth stalled, some South Korean firms suggested that South Korea’s primary export problem was the weakness in the Japanese yen. How would you interpret this statement? ANSWER: One of South Korea’s primary competitors in exporting is Japan, which produces and exports many of the same types of products to the same countries. When the Japanese yen is weak, some importers switch to Japanese products in place of South Korean products. 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Yet, one disgruntled executive of an exporting firm stated, â€Å"Free trade is not conceivable; we are always at the mercy of the exchange rate. Any country can use this mechanism to impose trade barriers. † What does this statement mean? ANSWER: This statement implies that even if there were no explicit barriers, a government could attempt to manipulate exchange rates to a level that would effectively reduce foreign competition. For example, a U. S. firm may be discouraged from attempting to export to Japan if the value of the dollar is very high against the yen. The prices of the U. S. oods from the Japanese perspective are too high because of the strong dollar. The reverse situation could also be possible in which a Japanese exporting firm is priced out of the U. S. market because of a strong yen (weak dollar). [Answer is based on opinion. ] 12. International Investments. U. S. -based MNCs commonly invest in foreign securities. a. Assume that the dollar is presently weak and is expected to strengthen over time. How will these expectations affect thetendency ofU. S. investors to invest in foreign securities? ANSWER: The expectations of a strong dollar would discourage U. S. nvestors from investing abroad. If the dollar is relatively weak now, U. S. investorsneed more dollars to make purchase foreign currency (when investing). If thedollar strengthens over their investment horizon, they willexchange the foreigncurrency (as the investment is liquidated) into dollars at a less favorable exchange rate than the exchange rate at which they converted dollars into the foreign currency. That is, the exchange rate effect would reduce the yield that they earn on their investment. b. Explain how low U. S. interest rates can affect the tendency of U. S. -based MNCs to invest abroad. ANSWER: Low U. S. nterest rates can encourage U. S. -based MNCs to invest abroad, as investors seek higher returns on their investment than they can earn in the U. S. c. In general terms, what is the attraction of foreign investments to U. S. investors? ANSWER: The main attraction is potentially higher returns. The international stocks can outperform U. S. stocks, and international bonds can outperform U. S. bonds. Howev er, there is no guarantee that the returns on international investments will be so favorable. Some investors may also pursue international investments to diversify their investment portfolio, which can possibly reduce risk. 3. Exchange Rate Effects on Trade. a. Explain why a stronger dollar could enlarge the U. S. balance of trade deficit. Explain why a weaker dollar could affect the U. S. balance of trade deficit. ANSWER: A stronger dollar makes U. S. exports more expensive to importers and may reduce imports. It makes U. S. imports cheap and may increase U. S. imports. A weaker home currency increases the prices of imports purchased by the home country and reduces the prices paid by foreign businesses for the home country’s exports. This should cause a decrease in the home country’s demand for imports and an increase in the foreign demand for the home country’s exports, and therefore increase the current account. However, this relationship can be distorted by other factors. b. It is sometimes suggested that a floating exchange rate will adjust to reduce or eliminate any current account deficit. Explain why this adjustment would occur. ANSWER: A current account deficit reflects a net sale of the home currency in exchange for other currencies. This places downward pressure on that home currency’s value. If the currency weakens, it will reduce the home demand for foreign goods (since goods will now be more expensive), and will increase the home export volume (since exports will appear cheaper to foreign countries). c. Why does the exchange rate not always adjust to a current account deficit? ANSWER: In some cases, the home currency will remain strong even though a current account deficit exists, since other factors (such as international capital flows) can offset the forces placed on the currency by the current account. We will write a custom essay sample on International Economics and U.s. Exports Essay Example specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on International Economics and U.s. Exports Essay Example specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on International Economics and U.s. Exports Essay Example specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer

Adolf Hitler Essays - Adolf Hitler, Hitler Family, Nazism

Adolf Hitler Essays - Adolf Hitler, Hitler Family, Nazism Adolf Hitler At 6:30 p.m. on the evening of April 20, 1889, he was born in the small Austrian village of Braunau Am Inn just across the border from German Bavaria. Adolf began to read early in his childhood. He would read about Native Americans and how they were slaughtered, battles between the Germans and Russians and he would read his fathers War books and Hitler became familiar with war and racism at an early age. "It was not long before the great historic struggle had become my greatest spiritual experience. From then on, I became more and more enthusiastic about everything that was in any was connected with war or, for that matter, with soldering." - Hitler There was a history teacher at school, Dr. Leopold P?tsch who touched Hitler's imagination with exciting tales of the glory of German figures such as Bismarck and Frederick The Great. For young Hitler, German Nationalism quickly became an obsession. By now Hitler also had strong pride in the German race and all things German along with a strong dislike of the Hapsburg Monarchy and the non-Germanic races in the multicultural Austro-Hungarian empire which had ruled Austria and surrounding countries for centuries. Now, at age 21, he was becoming keenly interested in politics, and anti-Semitism. Among the middle class in Vienna, anti-Semitism was considered rather fashionable. The mayor, Karl Lueger, a noted anti-Semite, was a member of the Christian Social Party which included anti-Semitism in its political platform. Hitler admired Lueger, a powerful politician, for his speech making skills and effective use of propaganda in gaining popular appeal. He also admired Lueger's skill in manipulating established institutions such as the Catholic Church. He studied Lueger carefully and modeled some of his later behavior on what he learned. When reading more about anti-Semitism he began to have a hatred for Jews "...the more I saw, the more sharply they became distinguished in my eyes from the rest of humanity..."-Hitler. But at this point Hitler's anti-Semitism was not apparent in his personal relationships with Jews. He still did business with Jewish shop owners in selling his paintings. However, the seeds of hate were planted and would be nurtured by events soon to come, laying the foundation for one of the greatest tragedies in all of human history. Selling paintings was the way to survive for Adolf since his parents were both dead and he didn?t finish Highschool. But ever since he was small he had a passion for painting and drawing. But he failed in getting into art school after several attempts leaving Adolf with no where to go. For the next several years, Adolf became a drifter. On August 1, 1914, a huge, enthusiastic crowd including Hitler gathered in a big public plaza in Munich - the occasion - to celebrate the German proclamation of war. Two days later, Hitler volunteered for the German Army, enlisting in a Bavarian regiment. On first hearing the news of war Hitler had sunk to his knees and thanked heaven for being alive. Hitler volunteered at age 25 by enlisting in a Bavarian Regiment. After its first engagement against the British and Belgians near Pyres, 2500 of the 3000 men in the Hitler's regiment were killed, wounded or missing. Hitler escaped without a scratch. Throughout most of the war Hitler had great luck avoiding life threatening injury. More than once, he moved away from a spot where moments later a shell exploded killing or wounding everyone. In the summer of 1919, Adolf Hitler was still in the army and was stationed in Munich where he had become an informer. Corporal Hitler had named soldiers in his barracks who had supported the Marxist uprisings in Munich, resulting in their arrest and executions. Hitler had discovered much to his delight that he could speak well in front of a strange audience, hold their attention, and sway them to his point of view. Adolf Hitler joined the committee of the German Workers' Party (Deutsche Arbeiterpartei or DAP) and thus entered politics. Through advertising in the anti-Semitism newspaper, people came to the meetings to hear Hitler speak. In the summer of 1920, Hitler chose the symbol which to this day remains perhaps the most infamous in history, the swastika. The

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Exam 1 - Essay Example Did Don have duty of care? Absolutely, if a person gets into an automobile as a passenger it is entirely reasonable to assert that they expect and the driver accepts the responsibility of safely conveying them to their destination. In this case, if anything, Don had a greater than normal duty of care as, by the time of the crash, Paula was a virtual prisoner in the vehicle. She ‘repeatedly asked Don to stop and let her out of the car†¦. Don ignored her requests.’ Arguably, Don was a kidnapper at this pint with Paula confined by his refusal to let her out. Regardless of this tangent, Don was responsible for the safe operation of the vehicle and the safety of Paula, his passenger. He breeched that care when he drove, insistently, until exhausted and dozed off. A Techbyte employee had driven Paula to the conference and asked Don to return her home as he, the president, was staying at the convention for another day. Approached by the president, Don, ‘a trusted employee’ agreed. He was not doing a friend a favour he was acceding to his superior’s request. Further, during the trip they were to ‘discuss Techbyte’s future computer needs on the way.’ Ultimately, in this scenario, Don was ‘at work’ when the accident occurred and acting as an employee of Techbyte and not as an individual. This, then, gives rise to a second question: Could Techbyte be held liable for the injuries Paula sustained in the car accident that resulted from Don’s negligent driving? Yes, they could. It is difficult to defend against the claim that Don was acting as an employee when he agreed to drive Paula home. As a ‘trusted employee’, presumably a man the president had known for some time, he was a reasonable and responsible choice. At that point Techbyte’s duty of care was fulfilled and the duty of care passed to Don, the driver. This is not a strong claim, but there is a significant mitigating factor here. Don did not injure Paula in

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What is HIPAA 5010 How will it impact healthcare informatics How will ICD-10 codes impact informatics - Coursework Example The new version of the standards is expected to create a major impact on the functioning of the healthcare industry as it has been designed to enhance the electronic exchange of information related to eligibility, claim submission and their status, electronic remittance, authorization for treatment and referrals. The 5010 standards are to be implemented by software vendors and clearinghouses on January 1, 2012 (American Academy of Dermatology, 2010; Emdeon Business Services, 2010). The implementation of the 5010 set of standards will be followed by the implementation of a new set of International Classification of Diseases-10 (ICD-10) Clinical Modification codes that replaces the current ICD-9 CM codes. The ICD-10 which consists of more than 68,000 codes with increased specificity and includes details required for classification of morbidity and diagnostic specificity is required to be implemented from October 1, 2013. The additional codes will help reveal more information related to healthcare and hence the complications and outcomes of care can be ascertained easily and issues can be resolved through better design of algorithms (American Academy of Dermatology, 2010). Thus implementation of both 5010 and ICD-10 standards will help in the delivery of safer and quality healthcare to the

Effects of Media on Public Discourse

Effects of Media on Public Discourse MICHAEL GANIDEKAM DO SOCIAL MEDIA ENCOURAGE OR DETRACT FROM MEANINGFUL  PUBLIC DISCOURSE? When one is asked a question on â€Å"What is the greatest power evident in this 21st Century?† answers and thoughts will cut across recent powerful countries like the US or China, or other great transnational businesses. But that really depends on the person’s perception on how he/she defines power. Anything that has the ability to bring about change and status is how I define power that is why I consider the internet as the greatest power in the 21st Century. The impact and contributions this technological invention has brought on human life and the world cannot be denied or silenced about. Mangold and Faulds (2009) points how Social Media has influenced and contributed in many aspects of stakeholder behaviours in relation to how information is received and consumer attitudes towards a product or service. Social media as defined by Lindsey (2011) refers to internet-based applications which allow communication and sharing of information and resources between people. It also provides a means by which people can connect to each other through the internet. Social media can also be identified as a group of internet-based applications intended to build on ideological and technological foundations that allow the establishment and exchange of content generated by users (Kaplan and Haenlein, 2010). Social Media can also be considered as technology-facilitated dialogue driven through platforms like social networking, social bookmarking, wikis etc. to connect with the public. (Reilly and Hynan, 2014). Social media comprises of a wide range of online channels. They include word-of-mouth forums which include blogs, discussion boards sponsored by companies and chat rooms, consumer-to-consumer email, internet discussion platforms and forums, social networking websites and more. Examples include Face book, Twitter, YouTube, wikis, blogs, LinkedIn, MySpace etc. Kaplan and Haenlein (2010) observed how social media use has evolved in wonder through the past decade from frequent changes affecting communication through new technologies to help interact and share information. According to McLuhan’s medium theory for new media, it states that, â€Å"any advanced modern society is shaped by the various media technologies that are available to it† (Laughey, 2007). Kaplan and Haenlein (2010) identified two key elements of Social Media, related to the theory of media research which is Social Presence and Media Richness. The social presence theory states that, media vary in the degree of social existence and allow the merging of two communication partners. The higher the social existence, the larger of influence that communication partners have on each other. And other key element, media richness theory bases its assumption that the goal of any communication is the resolution of ambiguity and the lessening of uncertainty. Because media vary in the level of richness, some media are more effective in resolving ambiguity and uncertainty than others. Connecting the theories to Social Media, we assume that, a classification can be made based on the richness of the medium of communication and the level of social existence it allows. Van Dijk (1997) identified discourse in three dimensions which are language use, communication of beliefs and interaction in social situations. He further noted how the use of language is not only limited to speaking but also encompasses written text communication where ‘text’ is defined as the product of writing. Written texts are integral in how one wants to communicate with language through speaking and writing and the modes for this discourse is what Van Dijk (1997) termed as ‘Users’, who include authors and readers. This theory is appropriate in Social Media where texts play a vital role in the communication and interaction process. Meaning is another important element in a discourse. Laughey (2007, as cited in Hall, 1982) observed that, â€Å"Meaning is a social production, a practice. The world has to be made to mean. Language and symbolism is the means by which meaning is produced†. He further explained that, language is made to mean something by encoding by the producers and this is then made to mean something through decoding by audiences. The encoding and decoding model of semiotic theory for meaning creation helps to know if Social Media messages have meanings rather than just reflecting meanings (Hall, 1993). In understanding meaning in a discourse, Van Dijk (1997) postulates two notions; Topic and Reference. ‘Topic’ is the general meaning that defines the unity of a discourse and most often are expressed in sectors of media as headlines, posts or summaries and an example can be seen on either of the social networks posts. He also posit that, topics are usually the best remembered part of a discourse which I agree to because when one has about 500 friends on Facebook and posts a content with the topic â€Å"Ebola in Scotland†, the topic easily circulates and be remembered when the reader or recipient might not have been able to remember the whole detail of the information. The other notion is ‘reference’ and this is the way a discourse and its meaning are linked to imagery events that is been talked about or trending as we call it in Twitter. Therefore in achieving a consistent discourse resulting in a meaningful one, Van Dijk (1997) argues the text of the content must be about events or situations that relate at least with the speaker or sender. A meaningful discourse can therefore be defined as a process of partnership and social negotiation with the goal of sharing different viewpoints and ideas and to collaborate on solving problems and knowledge building activities (Gilbert and Dabbagh, 2005 as cited in Duffy and Cunninggham, 1996). Let’s consider one of the Social Media platforms in perspective and how it is lessening meaning in a discourse. Twitter is a social networking platform where users send and receive text-based updates called tweets (Fairclouth, Mulderrig and Wodak, 2011). These tweets can be delivered and read web based or via instant messaging clients. On this platform, users choose whom they want to follow either an individual or a group or even strangers; they then receive all updates written and posted by them. About engagement on this platform, a Twitter user follows a range of people and some of these people do post updates of which some offer useful words of advice, links, news or amusing tales. But many of these messages might just be scanned through, no much concentration, appeal and sometimes put the person off. Sometimes the intimacy of Social Media contexts is not always positive as Crawford (2009) postulates. It can create discomfort, confusion or resentment. She therefore mentione d that sometimes Twitter users may require dexterity based on its demands of news updates to messages, information about what is trending in the day or what somebody had for breakfast. Korschun and Du (2012) argues that Social Media users are not passive audience but rather are active co-creators of worth but Asur et al. (2011) rebuts that, Social Media generates a never-ending wealth of content and that only few messages and topics manage to attract enough attention and engage in public discourse. In this technological age, one is able to express his/her opinions, ideas, and thoughts freely via the Social Media at no cost or charge. No form of regulation is binding users for signing in/up, liking a post on someone’s page, or following someone on Twitter. The only thing evident is the attainment of information. With Social networks like Facebook and Twitter, ‘liking’ something is assumed as the determinant of worth to the one who posted that information. Liking does not necessarily mean anything to the recipient because we cannot argue if just liking something on a page describes how the recipient is feeling or thinking when doing that (Zappavigna, 2012). I can testify to this myself as an ardent Social Media freak that, most often, the thought process in liking something on a page maybe absent hence done passively. A Facebook user can log into his/her account only to be welcomed with a well of texts or posts and even begging you to see more. When messages are posted on Social Media and become disturbing to the recipient, they lose meaning and thus become ‘noise’ to audiences or users. Any undesired uncertainty of message or information received is called noise (Nunes, 2011). He also mentioned that noise can reduce the potential of communication in a discourse. This case of noise cuts across all the platforms of Social Media for example with one of the social networking platforms called Twitter. This system can provide pop up messages on users screens whenever messages called ‘tweets’ are received passively serving as disproportionate fracas (Zappavigna, 2012). Social Media users have come to trade commitments with engagements or interactions for a pat on the back, and this discourse is eroding that true culture of dialogue and the ability to nuance values we actually like. Think about it in this way, the majority of content posted on a social/web page each day and contrast that with interacting in real life. Which is meaningful? About content on Social Media, Lee (2014) posit that, it is not a discussion but a statement and this makes the internet an accumulation of statements, thereby resulting in dialogue lost for a meaningful discourse. One can testify to how information presented in person through interaction in real life feels. Another limitation for a meaningful discourse is when content is ignored and considered unworthy to recipients and when content is in the viral state. When a user is present online, his/her account cannot disallow posts from trawling onto the page but the only remedy is to ignore them. Lee (2014) identified virulence on Social Media as the circulation of a statement online which does not offer room for discussion. An example of such incidence is the confusion on mislabelling a missing student as the suspect following the 2013 Boston Marathon bombing. Somebody jokingly posted his name on Twitter and his name ended up trending nationally, though he had nothing to do with the attack. All these factors account for the depreciation of the worth to address and discuss issues in depth. The proliferation of misinformation on Social Media is in influx and easily goes viral. Examples of such include posts on misguided drug use/health, false organisations or individuals appear to deceive or fraud people, false information circulating and many more. An example can be traced to the recent first diagnosis case of ‘Ebola’ virus in the United States on September 30, 2014. The patients were tested and proved negative but Social Media users on Twitter kept ‘tweeting’ as if the virus was running rampant in the country. There is nothing wrong with how Social Media use has helped in engaging and communicating with a large and diverse virtual community of people but the argument here is that it does not provide fulfilment on the platform. Interaction between individuals physically confers a much better way to dialogue and know who the person is and how well trust can be expressed on them. The anonymity of oneself on cyberspace allows others to in some way disassociate with their ideas, thoughts and even actions. One may argue of having friends on Facebook for example but that does not define what a true community is but is rather classified as a virtual presence. Interaction on this platform is not face-to-face even if the friends appear online to be engaged in an interaction. How can you justify if the supposed friends are the real people you are engaging with at that time? Sometimes unperceptive arguments are started online for example in politics and before you realise feelings are sparked unleashing a swath of ridiculous and offensive comments making it look so dramatic. Social Media discussions are becoming so much dramatic and provocative much more than the usual physical interactions would have been (Beirut, 2009). Social Media in my opinion detracts from meaningful discourse; the concept of engagement and presence is one of the challenges that has been forfeited and relegated for the virtual presence. Social Media evolution has brought about a lot of impacts and contributions but the reality is this, it is teaching us to know the better forms of interaction and engagement that is deeper and truer within a meaningful communication discourse. References ASUR, S., HUBERMAN, B.A., SZABO, G. and WANG, C., 2011. Trends in social media: persistence and decay. ICWSM. BEIRUT, 2009.Why do people really tweet? The psychology behind tweeting!Retrieved November 5, 2010. [online] Available from: http://blog.thoughtpick.com/2009/08/why-do-people-really-tweet-the-psychology-behind-tweeting.html [Accessed on 15 November 2014] CRAWFORD, K., 2009. Following you: Disciplines of listening in social media. Continuum: Journal of Media Cultural Studies, 23(4), pp. 525-535 FAIRCLOUGH, N., MULDERRIG, J. and WODAK, R., 2011. Critical discourse analysis. Discourse studies: A multidisciplinary introduction, pp. 357-378 GILBERT, P.K. and DABBAGH, N., 2005. How to structure online discussions for meaningful discourse: A case study. British Journal of Educational Technology, 36(1), pp. 5-18 HALL, S., 1993. Encoding, decoding. The cultural studies reader, 4, pp. 90-103 KAPLAN, A.M. and HAENLEIN, M., 2010. Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of Social Media. Business horizons, 53(1), pp. 59-68 KENT, M. L., MAUREEN, T., WHITE, W.J., 2003. The relationship between website design and organizational responsiveness to stakeholders. Public Relations Review, 29(1), 63-77. KIETZMANN, J.H. et al., 2011. Social media? Get serious! Understanding the functional building blocks of social media. Business horizons, 54(3), pp. 241-251 KOLLER, V., 2005. Critical discourse analysis and social cognition: evidence from business media discourse. Discourse Society, 16(2), pp. 199-224 LAUGHEY, D., 2007. Key themes in media theory. McGraw-Hill International. pp. 60-90 LINDSAY, B.R., 2011. Social media and disasters: Current uses, future options, and policy considerations. Congressional Research Service. MANGOLD, W.G. and FAULDS, D.J., 2009. Social media: The new hybrid element of the promotion mix. Business horizons, 52(4), pp. 357-365 NUNES, M., 2011. Error: glitch, noise and jam in new media cultures. New York: Continuum. pp. 13-18 REILLY, A.H. and HYNAN, K.A., 2014. Corporate communication, sustainability, and social media: Its not easy (really) being green. Business horizons, 57(6), pp. 747-758 SIFFERLIN, A., 2014. Fear, misconception and Social media complicate Ebola fight. [online] Available from: http://time.com/3479254/ebola-social-media/ [Accessed on 14 November 2014] VAN DIJK, T.A., 1997. The study of discourse. Discourse as structure and process, 1, pp. 1-22 ZAPPAVIGNA, M., 2012. Discourse of Twitter and social media: How we use language to create affiliation on the web. Bloomsbury Publishing.